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Minggu, 21 Oktober 2012

Prinsip Perhatian dan Motivasi dalam Pembelajaran

Perhatian dan motivasi merupakan dua aktivitas yang memiliki keterkaitan yang sangat erat. Untuk menumbuhkan perhatian diperlukan adanya motivasi. Sejumlah hasil penelitian bahwa hasil belajar pada umumnya meningkat jika anak memiliki motivasi yang kuat untuk belajar.
Hamalik (2001), mengemukakan bahwa motivasi adalah suatu perubahan energi di dalam pribadi seseorang yang ditandai dengan timbulnya afektif (perasaan dan reaksi untuk mencapai tujuan). Perubahan energi di dalam diri seseorang tersebut kemudian membentuk suatu aktivitas nyata dalam bebagai bentuk kegiatan.
Motivasi dapat bersifat internal dan eksternal. Beberapa penulis atau ahli yang lain menyebutnya motivasi intrinsik dan ekstrinsik. Motivasi internal atau motivasi intrinsik adalah dorongan dari dalam diri individu untuk melakukan suatu aktivitas. Motivasi eksternal adalah dorongan yang berasal dari luar diri individu. Motivasi eksternal melalui proses belajar dan interaksi individu dengan lingkungannya dapat berubah menjadi motivasi internal. Proses perubahan dari motivasi ekstrinsik menjadi motivasi intrinsik pada seseorang disebut “transformasi motif” (Dimyati dan Mudjiono, 1994:41).

Minggu, 14 Oktober 2012

The Development of ESP



Nowadays ,there are fifth phases of ESP development. All the approaches that related to the ESP development can be found in all around the world and we can measure the speeds of the development by seeeing the application of the approaches.  They grow with the different speeds in each country based on its needs to English. Related to the Development of ESP we should take our attention to one are of activity that has been particularly important in the development of ESP. We’ve known this as EST (English for Science and Technology). Swales (1985) has pointed that the use of EST’s development can be used to illustrate the development of ESP in general :          
            
“EST has set and continues to set the trend in theoretical discussion, in ways of analysing language, and in the variety of actual teaching materials.”

Here are the fifth phases and its explanation :
1.The concept of special language : register analysis
The needs of English here back to their needs according to their area of study or work by operating the basic principle of English in a spesific register or general english. They need to know them with an aim to identify the grammatical and lexical features of these registers. Then, we need teaching materials to take these linguistic parts as its syllabus. The main motive behind register analyses is the pedagogic one of making the ESP course more relevant to learners’ needs. The aim is to produce a syllabus which give high priority to the language forms that the students will meet or won’t meet in each of their studies. For example , we can compare the language on Science textbook and general english textbook. Of course, there will be significant differences between them, we can find that general english books neglect some of the language forms that commonly find in the Science textbook. The conclusion is ESP course should give precedence to these forms.

ESP : Summary of approach not product


ESP all essentially emphasize to language centred approaches and to give a definition of ESP we need to establish a context about how ESP at the present time relates to the rest of ELT.
In the time honoured manner of Linguistics, we shall represent the relationship in the form of a tree. They represent some of the common divisions that are made in ELT. The topmost branches of the tree show the level at which individual ESP courses occur. This level divided into two main types of ESP according to whether the learner requires english for academic study, they are EAP (English for Academic Purpose of for work/training) and EOP,EVP,VESL (English for Occupational Purpose/English for Vocational Purpose/Vocational English as a Second Language)
At the next level down, ESP courses distinguished by the general nature of the learner's specialism. Three categories are identified here, they are : EST (English for Science and Technology), EBE (English for Business and Economics) and ESS (English for the Social Sciences).

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE


Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity. It is developed by James Asher.
Total Physical Response is linked to the “trace theory” of memory in psychology (Katona 1940), which holds that the more often or the more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory association will be and the more likely it will be recalled.
Retracing can be done verbally (e.g., by rote repetition) and/or in association with motor activity. Combined tracing activities, such as verbal rehearsal accompanied by motor activity, hence increase the probability of successful recall. In a developmental sense, Asher sees successful adult second language learning as a parallel process to child first language acquisition. He claims that speech directed to young children consists primarily of commands, which children respond to physically before they begin to produce verbal responses.
Sv – R type Learning
“SV” refers to a verbal stimulus – a syllable, a word, a phrase, and so on. “R” refers to the physical movements the child makes in response to the verbal stimulus (or sv). The movement may involve touching, grasping, or otherwise manipulating some objects.
E.g., Mother may tell Adit (age 1) to get the ball. “Ball” is the “sv” and Adit’s action is the response.
Second language teaching and learning should reflect the naturalistic processes.

Theory of language


The communicative approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as communication
The Goal of Language Teaching
To develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as “Communicative Competence.
Canale and Swain (1980) divide communicative competence into four dimensions:
(1) grammatical competence,
(2) Sociolinguistic competence
(3) Discourse competence, and
(4 strategic competence
          Grammatical competence refers to what Chomsky call linguistic competence. It is the domain of grammatical and lexical capacity.
          Sociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, including role relationship, the shared information of the participants, and the communicative purpose for their interaction.

THE NATURAL APPROACH AND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Principles
  1. Comprehension precedes production (Listening and Reading).
2.     Production is allowed to emerge in stages (response with nonverbal communication, single words, combination of two or three words, phrases, sentences, discourse).
3.     Syllabus consists of communicative goals (classroom activity is organized by topic).
4.     Activities done in the classroom aimed at acquisition must foster a lowering of the affective filter of the students.

Comprehension precedes production
The implications of this principle are that:
  1. The instructor always uses the target language.
  2. The focus of communication will be on a topic of interest for the student.
  3. The instructor will strive all times to help the student understand.
The Theoretical model: five hypotheses

1.  The Acquisition –Learning Hypothesis
                This hypothesis claims that adults have two distinct ways of developing competence in second languages.
          Acquisition (language acquisition is the natural way to develop linguistic ability, and is a subconscious process).
          Learning (knowing about language, or formal knowledge, and is a conscious process).
 
How acquisition takes place?
According to research in second language acquisition, it is thought that “acquisition” can take place only when people “understand” messages in the target language.
                “Incomprehensible input” (e.g. listening to unknown language on the radio) does not seem to help language acquisition.          

Kamis, 11 Oktober 2012

A Haunted House by Virginia Woolf

Whatever hour you woke there was a door shutting. From room to room they went, hand in hand, lifting here, opening there, making sure--a ghostly couple.
"Here we left it," she said. And he added, "Oh, but here tool" "It's upstairs," she murmured. "And in the garden," he whispered. "Quietly," they said, "or we shall wake them."
But it wasn't that you woke us. Oh, no. "They're looking for it; they're drawing the curtain," one might say, and so read on a page or two. "Now they've found it,' one would be certain, stopping the pencil on the margin. And then, tired of reading, one might rise and see for oneself, the house all empty, the doors standing open, only the wood pigeons bubbling with content and the hum of the threshing machine sounding from the farm. "What did I come in here for? What did I want to find?" My hands were empty. "Perhaps its upstairs then?" The apples were in the loft. And so down again, the garden still as ever, only the book had slipped into the grass.
But they had found it in the drawing room. Not that one could ever see them. The windowpanes reflected apples, reflected roses; all the leaves were green in the glass. If they moved in the drawing room, the apple only turned its yellow side. Yet, the moment after, if the door was opened, spread about the floor, hung upon the walls, pendant from the ceiling--what? My hands were empty. The shadow of a thrush crossed the carpet; from the deepest wells of silence the wood pigeon drew its bubble of sound. "Safe, safe, safe" the pulse of the house beat softly. "The treasure buried; the room . . ." the pulse stopped short. Oh, was that the buried treasure?

R E C O U N T


Social Function of Recount Text
To retell past event or experience which happened in the past.

Generic Structure of Recount Text
1. Orientation: Introducing the participants, place and time
2. Events: Describing series of event that happened in the past
3. Reorientation: It is optional. Stating personal comment of the writer to the story

Language Features of Recount Text
• Introducing personal participant: I, my group, etc
• Using chronological connection: then, first, etc
• Using linking verb: was, were, saw, heard, etc
• Using action verb: look, go, change, etc
• Using simple past tense

Puritan Period or the Age of Milton


The period from the accession of Charles I in 1625 to the Revolution of 1688 was filled with a mighty struggle over the question whether king or Commons should be supreme in England. On this question the English people were divided into two main parties. On one side were the Royalists, or Cavaliers, who upheld the monarch with his theory of the divine right of kings, on the other were the Puritans, or Independents, who stood for the rights of the individual man and for the liberties of Parliament and people. The literature of the age is extremely diverse in character, and is sadly lacking in the unity, the joyousness, the splendid enthusiasm of Elizabethan prose and poetry.
The puritans were never a majority in England. But, it was changed in the Civil War in 1642, which ended in puritan victory. The result of the War, England was for a brief period a commonwealth, disciplined at home and respected abroad, through the genius and vigor and tyranny of Oliver Cromwell. When Cromwell died (1658) there was no man in England strong enough to take his place, and two years later “Prince Charlie,” who had long been an exile, was recalled to the throne as Charles II of England. 
 

Phonetic symbols for English


This is the standard set of phonemic symbols for English (RP and similar accents).
Consonants
p
pen, copy, happen
b
back, baby, job
t
tea, tight, button
d
day, ladder, odd
k
key, clock, school
g
get, giggle, ghost
tʃ
church, match, nature
dʒ
judge, age, soldier
f
fat, coffee, rough, photo
v
view, heavy, move
θ
thing, author, path
ð
this, other, smooth
s
soon, cease, sister
z
zero, music, roses, buzz
ʃ
ship, sure, national
ʒ
pleasure, vision
h
hot, whole, ahead
m
more, hammer, sum
n
nice, know, funny, sun
ŋ
ring, anger, thanks, sung
l
light, valley, feel
r
right, wrong, sorry, arrange
j
yet, use, beauty, few
w
wet, one, when, queen
ʔ
(glottal stop)
department, football
Vowels
ɪ
kit, bid, hymn, minute
e
dress, bed, head, many
æ
trap, bad
ɒ
lot, odd, wash
ʌ
strut, mud, love, blood
ʊ
foot, good, put
fleece, sea, machine
eɪ
face, day, break
aɪ
price, high, try
ɔɪ
choice, boy
goose, two, blue, group
əʊ
goat, show, no
aʊ
mouth, now
ɪə
near, here, weary
square. fair, various
ɑː
start, father
ɔː
thought, law, north, war
ʊə
poor, jury, cure
ɜː
nurse, stir, learn, refer
ə
about, common, standard
i
happy, radiate. glorious
u
thank you, influence, situation
n̩
suddenly, cotton
l̩
middle, metal
ˈ
(stress mark)